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Summary

World History Class 07

## THE CLASS STARTED WITH A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF THE PREVIOUS CLASS (5:06 PM)

## OTHER REASONS FOR THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (5:12 PM)

- (1) Monarchy of France was called the Bourbons**,** a discredited monarchy.
- They were interested in enjoying only absolute power and not in the welfare of the people or the subjects.
- A discredited monarchy because it wasted the resources of France and was defeated in all the wars against Austria and England.
- (2) The administrative system of France was rotten to the core.
- France had no rule of law, and class differed from area to area.
- (3) No uniform currency, weights, and measures.
- (4) The evil practices in the political system were **'Simony and Plurality.'**
- Simony means purchasing and selling the public office.
- Plurality means holding more than one office at a time.
- **Financial reasons for the revolution :**
- Problems with the French economy itself- an economy with extreme inequalities.
- (1) The rich and well-off sections were exempted from taxes.
- Whereas the middle class and the poor peasantry were made to bear the maximum burden.
- (2) Revenue Farming system, a system of deciding revenue collection rights in a locality gave scope for maximum exploitation.
- (3) Feudal class never accepted development.
- **Role of philosophers :**
- France was the country with the maximum philosophers of the time making it the center for their activity or teaching.
- (1) Voltaire was the first among the philosophers called King Voltaire for his proficiency.
- He was the first to question the moral and ethical rights of the church in collecting taxes from the people.
- He appealed to human reason and faculties of judgment in understanding the realities by drawing a comparative study between the royal absolutism of the French monarchy and democracy in England.
- He caught the imagination of the French people.
- He wrote the famous**''Letters on English''**
- (2) **Montesquieu**in his famous thesis **''The spirit of Laws''** questioned the purpose of the law and advocated for the ''Theory of Separation of Powers.''
- For him, the law must address itself as the problem of the society than reflecting the customs and traditions.
- (3) **Rousseau**was the most influential thinker and philosopher in the French Revolution in his famous **''Social Contract'',**Rousseauemphatically declared that the ultimate right resides with the people in either creating or destroying political institutions.
- He called it **Popular Sovereignty or General Will.**
- There Rousseau was a Democrat.
- He was equally a socialist when he questioned inequalities in society in his famous text "**A Discourse on the Origin of Inequality.''**
- Rousseau was a humanist when he talked about absolute freedom and liberty.
- (4) **Denis Diderot**wrote **''Encyclopedia''**in which he gave new definitions for social and political ideas and institutions in the light of Enlightenment.
- (5) French economists called Physiocrats also generated new ideas.
- They opposed the concentration of wealth and monopolies.
- For them, everyone must have equal opportunity and accessibility to the resources of the country.
- In other words, they also supported private property.
- However, the revolution was not the result of philosophers or their teachings.
- Revolution would have taken place even without philosophers as revolutionary conditions were satisfied already as France was in a deep financial crisis and crops failed for 3 consecutive years.
- For the French peasantry, it was a do-or-die struggle.
- No philosopher asked for revolution.
- (3) Revolution had not started with the educated middle class but rather with an illiterate mob that was not influenced by philosophers.
- However, the role of philosophers can not be denied.
- They were not a cause for revolution but they influenced the course of the revolution with their ideas.
- **The immediate cause for the revolution :**
- It was **Emperor Louis XVI's** summon of Estate General, the French parliament.

## WORK OF NATIONAL ASSEMBLY (5:26 PM)

- It was the first stage of the French Revolution. (1789-1791)
- Estate General, the legislative assembly of the French Parliament was summoned after 175 years.
- The third estate, the Estate of Commons demanded converting Estates General into National Assembly, a single-chambered assembly and vote by head not by estate.
- When the demands were rejected, the revolutionaries took an oath on the tennis court.
- Mobs entered the city of Paris creating a violent atmosphere.
- On 14th July 1789, the fall of Bastille had taken place.
- Estates General was converted into National Assembly.
- **The work of the National Assembly was:**
- (1) To draft a new constitution for France.
- (2) It recommended the evolution of feudalism and feudal privileges.
- (3) The practice of buying and selling public offices ended.
- (4) The lands of the church were nationalized.
- (5) The monumental work of the national assembly was drafting the **''Declaration of the Rights of Man & Citizen.''**
- It borrowed the concept from the American Revolution.
- At the same time inspired by Rousseau.
- **In the new constitution drafted Montesquieu's Theory of Separation of Powers was implemented dividing power between the legislature, executive, and judiciary.**
- **New Constitution:**
- (1) A new legislative assembly with 745 members was provided to be elected for 2 years.
- (2) King was declared the chief executive and was given suspensive veto power.
- (3) For judicial reforms, the national assembly postponed the issue, however, it provided for uniformity in the application of laws.
- (4) France was divided into 83 districts of equal size called **departments** further divided into **cantons and communes.**
- (5) Officers to be appointed.
- (6) To overcome the financial crises, a minted currency called **Assignnats** was introduced against the nationalized landed property as the guarantee.
- (7) Church was insubordinate to the state.
- All church officers were to be appointed and paid salaries.
- Church of France to maintain its identity from the control of pop.
- **Critical assessment of the work assembly :**
- It was not completed by the revolutionary slogans- **''Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity.''**
- Work was done:
- (1) People were divided into Active citizens and Passive citizens going against the spirit of equality.
- 2/3rd of the French population was eliminated from the decision-making process.
- (2) Revolution offended the sentiments of French people, who were majority Catholics, and the priestly classes.
- (3) The minted currency Assignauts finally led to inflation.
- However, the national assembly did have great achievements to its credit.
- **Achievements:**
- (1) Age-old feudalism was abolished.
- (2) A sense of social equality was provided.
- (3) Human rights were guaranteed.
- (4) Public offices were opened for merit and talent.
- (5) The unjust tax system ended and tax according to the ability became the guiding principle.
- **Work of the national convention (1791-1795) :**
- On September 21st, 1792, National Convention was officially formed.
- The main purpose of the convention was to protect the French Revolution from its internal and external threats.
- It came to power to save France from the monarchies of Europe represented by Austria, Prussia, and Sardinia.
- It defeated the coalition of monarchies, saved France, and introduced a series of reforms:
- (1) It made France a republic.
- It ended the monarchy and France emerged as the First Republican state in Europe and 21st September 1792.
- (2) The concept of **Nationalism**took a concrete shape for the first time under National Convention.
- France became the first European country to have a full-fledged Nationalist army consisting of only the French.
- (3) Language French was declared the official language of France.
- (4) A new calendar was introduced for the entire of France with 3 weeks in a month.
- (5) Slavery was banned not only in France but also in French colonies.
- (6) Women were given the Right to Property for the first time.
- (7)**Law of Primogeniture**was set aside.
- All children are declared equally eligible for inheriting property.
- (8) No criminal punishment for defaulters, providing relief to workers and the peasantry.
- Radical reforms of the National Convention were:
- (1) Land was distributed to the landless.
- For the first time right to have property became a reality in France.
- (2)**Law of Maxims**was passed under which essential goods were provided for every family at subsidized rates.
- These reforms appeared to make France heading toward Socialism.
- Undoubtedly France became the first country to implement the principles of Socialism, though not by conviction.
- A new constitution was drafted for France called the **Directorate**with 5 directors for internal administration and to deal with external challenges.
- **The negative side of the National Convention was:**
- (1) The **'Reign of Terror** was created in the name of saving the revolution.
- Under the National Convention, the revolution became a bloodthirsty revolution.
- It caused a tremendous loss in terms of men and materials.
- What prevailed in France in the name of revolution was virtually anarchy.
- (2) Executing the royal family was a grave mistake committed by the revolutionaries.
- It continued to create a constant conflict between France and its neighboring countries.
- In other words, a struggle between the forces of Revolution and Reaction started in European history.
- (3) It was an irresponsible act on the part of the National Convention in forming a directorate of 5 directors without providing them with clear direction regarding the principles and policies of the administration.
- In a way, National Convention itself gave scope for Napoleon to capture power.

## WHY REVOLUTION IN FRANCE ONLY? (5:56 PM)

- **Conditions satisfied from the beginning in France making France the first European country to experience a revolution:**
- (1) French feudal class never discharged their duties.
- It was a class that remained indifferent and irresponsible.
- Moreover, it was highly exploitative.
- They were responsible for a revolutionary situation and continued to maintain France as a society with extreme inequalities.
- (2) French monarchy was an absolute monarchy.
- Whereas monarchies of other countries were benevolent monarchies, enjoyed power, and discharged administration in the interest of the public.
- (3) Next to England, France was the country with a dynamic educated middle class.
- (4) France, was the country with the maximum philosophers of the Age of Enlightenment.
- (5) France, was the country that faced the worst financial crisis.
- (6) Consecutive failure of crops for 3 years was the actual factor for the revolution.
- In no other country, it so happened.
- (7) The location of the capital city Paris in the heart of France was within the reach of the rural societies of France and was equally a factor.
- This situation made the mobs and the masses enter the capital city easily and create a revolutionary situation.
- **Effects of the revolution :**
- Within France, drastic changes had taken place.
- Feudalism ended, the monarchy was abolished, and republicanism started.
- Constitutionalism appeared for the first time.
- Human rights were recognized and sanctified.
- Monopolies ended, right to property was recognized.
- For the first time resources of the country came within the reach of different sections of society.
- Religion is subordinated to the state.
- **Socially,**human dignity was upheld.
- Slavery was banned.
- Women also came to play an important role in decision-making.
- **External effects :**
- Revolutionary ideas very quickly spread to the neighboring countries, particularly Italy, Austria, Prussia, and Germany.
- They became the centers of great political movements.
- French nationalism inspired nationalist movements in Italy and Germany.
- Ideas of socialism, for the first time, were experimented on.
- A new trend called Romanticism appeared in the literature in the writings of Sautet, Sheldon, and Dryden.
- The concept of Universalism also found its expression for the first time in the French Revolution.
- It is when the revolutionaries declared that they would spread the ideas all over the world.

## NAPOLEON'S FOREIGN POLICY (6:15 PM)

- When he was defeated in the Battle of Neil, Austria formed a confederacy with the support of England, Russia, Prussia, and Sardinia.
- Napoleon defeated the Austrians and forced them to sign **Luneville Treaty.**
- The treaty confirmed all the provisions of the early **Campoformio Treaty.**
- Napoleon formed a coalition against England with the support of Sweden and Russia.
- Both withdrew as England's naval commander Nelson defeated the Swedish and Czar Paul was murdered in Russia.
- Napoleon agreed to peace and signed the **Treaty of Amiens** with England.
- It was only for bidding time.
- He encouraged the forces against England in India and Europe.
- In the **Battle of Trafalgar**, Napoleon was defeated by Nelson (1804).
- However, Nelson died in the battle.
- In 1804, Napoleon became the emperor of France.
- With the failure of Napoleon in the Battle of Trafalgar, Austria, Prussia, and Russia, all formed a coalition.
- Napoleon defeated Austrians, Prussians (in the battle of Jena 1805), and Russians (in the battle of Britenfields)
- The height of Napoleon's glory was in 1807- **Treaty of Tilsit.**
- He became the master of the entire Europe, except England.
- He created new kingdoms.
- He declared himself King of Italy.
- He appointed his brother Joseph as king of Naples, and another brother Louis became king of the Netherlands.
- Napoleon created the**Rhine Confederacy**of 16 German states by merging all 333 German states.
- He declared himself a protector**.**

## NAPOLEON (7:24 PM)

- Napoleon-man of extraordinary talents and a rare combination of valor and intellect.
- Napoleon was the last of the brilliant commanders and the first of the great statesman.
- He came to the limelight for the first time when he liberated the town of **Toulon**from the royalists.
- In the revolution, Napoleon sided with the Jacobians (the radicals).
- In 1795, Napoleon's Italian campaign started.
- He defeated the Italians( Sardinians), entered Austria to defeat the Austrians, and forced them to sign the **Treaty of Campo Formio.**
- As a part of the treaty, Austria vacated Italy and surrendered its Netherlands called Austrian Netherlands.
- Napoleon created two republics in Italy- **the Cisalpine Republic (on the Southern side of the Alps) and the Ligurian Republic.**
- For the first time he liberated Italy from the control of Austria and was called the **'Father of Italian Unification.'**
- However, in 1797, though he occupied Egypt by defeating Pasha of Egypt in the **''Battle of Pyramids''**, he was finally defeated by Nelson of England in the '' **Battle of Nile.''**
- In 1800, Napoleon captured power and became the ruler of France.
- **Reforms by the Napoleon:**
- He gave a new constitution called **Consular Constitution.**
- It provided for agencies like the Council of States, the tribunate, the legislative assembly, and the Senate.
- The first is to introduce the law (Council of States), the second (tribunate) to discuss the law, third (assembly) to decide about the law.
- Senate with 80 members will make all the nominations including members of the consulate.
- Napoleon as the first consulate would make all the appointments.
- His word was to be final in the matters of war & peace.
- The mayor as an administrator of cities, prefects for Cantons, and sub-prefects for Communes were all appointed by Napoleon.
- A secretariat of ministers was provided but Napoleon took enough care to see that ministers are not united.
- In other words, no collective responsibility.
- **Though it appears that he honored the 'separation of powers, in reality, he went against the spirit of revolution and concentrated the power in his hands as First Consulate.**
- In financial reforms, the Bank of Paris was founded in the 1800s, and very soon it became one of the best-managed institutions in Europe.
- In education, he revealed his remarkable foresight and statesmanly qualities.
- No other ruler in history gave that much importance to education as Napoleon did.
- He founded primary schools and high schools called Lycees, schools for technical education, a school for studies like civil service, training schools, etc.
- **Norman Schools for** teacher training were founded.
- The University of Paris controls and coordinates the entire education system.
- He was the first to recognize the importance of woman's education **(''the hand that rocks the cradle is the hand that rules the world.'')**
- He created the **Legion of Honors**to be conferred upon men of letters and experts who excelled in their respective fields.
- He struck a perfect balance between humanities, sciences, and arts.
- This made the French education system the best in the world at that time.
- Public work, Roadways, as many as 200 were completed, of that 30 linked Paris with the borders.
- Irrigation systems were provided, and dams were renovated.
- However, Napoleon used war prisoners as a labor force and made defeated countries Italy, Austria, and Prussia pay up public work expenditure in France. (Not a child of the revolution.)
- Introduced a new judicial code called**''Code De Napoleon''** called the monumental work of Napoleon's genius.
- **The radical ideas of the code-**
- (1) divorce accepted against the ideas of the Roman Catholic Religion.
- (2) Father, head of the family, but no right to dispose of more than 50% of the property.
- (3) Civil procedure code, penal code, and commercial codes were entirely innovations in the realm of law.
- In the subject law, he extended them to all the countries he conquered.
- (4) In religion, he bestowed the relationship between the French catholic church and the Roman church.
- In 1801, he entered into an understanding with Pope called
- However, he never hesitated to go against the pope in sanctioning the divorce and in extending the**Continental system.**
- (He used religion for building up his public image)
- He created a sense of equality by opening up public offices for talents-**''Careers are open for talents.''**
- However, he never accepted liberty, for him French asked for equality but not liberty. (Not a child of the revolution.)
- However, he beautified the city of Paris and made it a center of European passions, founded the Museum of Paris-one of the best managed even today.

## THE TOPIC FOR THE NEXT CLASS: NAPOLEON'S FOREIGN POLICY (To be Continued...)